Extended Queueing of Handover (EQH) Scheme
In a handover process, a UT with unfulfilled handover request will have its call terminated once it leaves the present cell i.e. when the signal strength of the present beam drops below an acceptable level. Under the proposed Extended Queueing of Handover (EQH) scheme [5], the policies of queueing and early channel reservation also apply to handover calls. In addition to them, the queueing process of an initially unfulfilled handover is allowed to be continued in the destination cell and thus lasts longer, promising a higher chance of obtaining a free communication channel. In this case, since the UT has left the present cell and has not reserved a channel from the destination cell,
its call has to be discontinued until either a free channel is available on which the call can be resumed on,or until the tolerable suspension period is over which the call has to be permanently terminated,whichever comes first. Although this suspended call is prioritised over new call in getting a channel, it does not significantly affect the blocking rate of new call because the probability that a call get suspended is very small. From the viewpoints of the two involved communicating parties in an initially unsuccessful handover call,
the discontinuity can be notified through a special tone / message. In terms of quality of service (QoS), a suspended call that eventually gets terminated is better than a disruptive and uninformed drop call. On the other hand, if the call is able to be resumed upon the availability of an idle channel, the short term discontinuity makes it worth than having the call terminated and followed by setting up a new call again, which is harder because new call is less privileged. Hence regardless of the outcome EQH scheme promises a higher QoS.
Friday, August 27, 2010
General aspects of mobile satellite systems
General aspects of mobile satellite systems
Differences between satellite and terrestrial systems exist in spite of common objectives for high quality services and excellent spectrum efficiency. Some differences arise because:- user costs are closely related to satellite transmit power the satellite propagation channel is highly predictable satellite paths introduce significant propagation delays and Doppler shifts frequency co-ordination has to be on a global basis frequency re-use options are more limited, hence bandwidth is a tight constraint satellite beam shaping and sizing opportunities are limited.The first two points lead naturally to the emphasis placed on the line-of-sight satellite link budget when establishing the system design. The base link budget is derived from theoretical path losses to which link margins are added to
compensate for inevitable impairments in equipment and propagation characteristics. All impairments, even if not directly calculable in terms of signal loss (e.g. group delay and rate of change of Doppler shift), are converted accurately to dB so that the compensating increase in transmit power can be established. The total margin over the theoretical ideal
path is only a few dB and precision in calculating the contributory impairments is essential. The resulting link budget then allows the availability and quality of service to be estimated over the coverage area.Large link margins have a major impact on system build cost and operating tariffs simply because of the impact of additional power requirements on spacecraft size — a 3dB excess margin would almost double user charges. For this reason, mobile satellite communication systems have lead the way in very power-efficient modulation formats and low bit rate voice codecs (2,4 kbit/s and 4,8 kbit/s) as well as adaptive power control. The drive for efficient use of satellite power is noticeably reflected in terminal equipment design with:
- very low loss antennas coupled with very low loss receive filters;
- very tight transmit/receive filter specifications;
- very low noise amplifiers;
- excellent carrier/signal acquisition in presence of Doppler, noise and interference;
- power-saving and spectrum-efficient forward error correction;
- multi-path discrimination techniques might facilitate low signal-to-noise demodulator operation
The satellite-mobile uplink and downlink are inevitably more fragile than the corresponding feeder links (land earth station-satellite). However the feeder link itself needs a very substantial link margin in order that the aggregate up/down performance may be largely determined by the mobile link. These feeder links operate in higher frequency bands where Doppler and atmospheric/meteorological disturbances can become even more significant. The following clauses of this TR focus on particular characteristics, capabilities and limitations of mobile satellite systems together with typical values for key parameters where possible. However it must be recognised that most parameters are inter-dependent and will also vary with architecture of the ground infrastructure, the satellite orbital arrangement, and the user terminal configuration.
Differences between satellite and terrestrial systems exist in spite of common objectives for high quality services and excellent spectrum efficiency. Some differences arise because:- user costs are closely related to satellite transmit power the satellite propagation channel is highly predictable satellite paths introduce significant propagation delays and Doppler shifts frequency co-ordination has to be on a global basis frequency re-use options are more limited, hence bandwidth is a tight constraint satellite beam shaping and sizing opportunities are limited.The first two points lead naturally to the emphasis placed on the line-of-sight satellite link budget when establishing the system design. The base link budget is derived from theoretical path losses to which link margins are added to
compensate for inevitable impairments in equipment and propagation characteristics. All impairments, even if not directly calculable in terms of signal loss (e.g. group delay and rate of change of Doppler shift), are converted accurately to dB so that the compensating increase in transmit power can be established. The total margin over the theoretical ideal
path is only a few dB and precision in calculating the contributory impairments is essential. The resulting link budget then allows the availability and quality of service to be estimated over the coverage area.Large link margins have a major impact on system build cost and operating tariffs simply because of the impact of additional power requirements on spacecraft size — a 3dB excess margin would almost double user charges. For this reason, mobile satellite communication systems have lead the way in very power-efficient modulation formats and low bit rate voice codecs (2,4 kbit/s and 4,8 kbit/s) as well as adaptive power control. The drive for efficient use of satellite power is noticeably reflected in terminal equipment design with:
- very low loss antennas coupled with very low loss receive filters;
- very tight transmit/receive filter specifications;
- very low noise amplifiers;
- excellent carrier/signal acquisition in presence of Doppler, noise and interference;
- power-saving and spectrum-efficient forward error correction;
- multi-path discrimination techniques might facilitate low signal-to-noise demodulator operation
The satellite-mobile uplink and downlink are inevitably more fragile than the corresponding feeder links (land earth station-satellite). However the feeder link itself needs a very substantial link margin in order that the aggregate up/down performance may be largely determined by the mobile link. These feeder links operate in higher frequency bands where Doppler and atmospheric/meteorological disturbances can become even more significant. The following clauses of this TR focus on particular characteristics, capabilities and limitations of mobile satellite systems together with typical values for key parameters where possible. However it must be recognised that most parameters are inter-dependent and will also vary with architecture of the ground infrastructure, the satellite orbital arrangement, and the user terminal configuration.
Who will use satellite communications systems?
Who will use satellite communications systems?
Global roamer
The first type of satellite user will be the global roamer. The global roamer consists mainly of business travelers who want to have the ability to make and receive calls anywhere in the world. Iridium has conducted extensive analysis of this market and concluded that this market will consist of 42 million people by the year 2002.
Cellular extension
The second type of user will be individuals who wish to extend their cellular coverage to areas where no service currently exists. Both Globalstar and Iridium plan to offer dual mode phones which will work with GSM/TDMA/CDMA cellular systems and satellite communications systems. An example of a dual mode user would be would be an individual who lives in Chicago and travels to upstate Montana for a hunting trip. The
person would normally have cellular service from Ameritech but that coverage does not include upstate Montana where no cellular coverage exists. To be able to receive service on their Ameritech system (same phone number) in Montana, the individual would sign up with Iridium for dual mode service. Signing up would mean that once the
individual got out of the range of their Ameritech systems, they could hit a switch on their Iridium phone and make or receive calls outside of their Ameritech coverage zone routed through the Iridium satellite system. This would allow for ubiquitous service for cellular users even when they are out of range of their current cellular system.
Landline extension
The third type of satellite user will an individual who wants landline extension. In this instance a satellite company would install a fixed telephone booth in a rural area (e.g. in the outskirts of India). This would enable a rural town, which currently has no means of voice communications, to communicate with an urban area where medical, police or other services exist. The rural town could also use the phone to call suppliers of staple products. Fixed satellite service would mostly be used when a landline system is uneconomical or technologically incapableor serving a particular location. Vodaphone has been using fixed wireless phone booths in South Africa and has averaged 800 minutes of use per booth.
Global roamer
The first type of satellite user will be the global roamer. The global roamer consists mainly of business travelers who want to have the ability to make and receive calls anywhere in the world. Iridium has conducted extensive analysis of this market and concluded that this market will consist of 42 million people by the year 2002.
Cellular extension
The second type of user will be individuals who wish to extend their cellular coverage to areas where no service currently exists. Both Globalstar and Iridium plan to offer dual mode phones which will work with GSM/TDMA/CDMA cellular systems and satellite communications systems. An example of a dual mode user would be would be an individual who lives in Chicago and travels to upstate Montana for a hunting trip. The
person would normally have cellular service from Ameritech but that coverage does not include upstate Montana where no cellular coverage exists. To be able to receive service on their Ameritech system (same phone number) in Montana, the individual would sign up with Iridium for dual mode service. Signing up would mean that once the
individual got out of the range of their Ameritech systems, they could hit a switch on their Iridium phone and make or receive calls outside of their Ameritech coverage zone routed through the Iridium satellite system. This would allow for ubiquitous service for cellular users even when they are out of range of their current cellular system.
Landline extension
The third type of satellite user will an individual who wants landline extension. In this instance a satellite company would install a fixed telephone booth in a rural area (e.g. in the outskirts of India). This would enable a rural town, which currently has no means of voice communications, to communicate with an urban area where medical, police or other services exist. The rural town could also use the phone to call suppliers of staple products. Fixed satellite service would mostly be used when a landline system is uneconomical or technologically incapableor serving a particular location. Vodaphone has been using fixed wireless phone booths in South Africa and has averaged 800 minutes of use per booth.
Friday, August 20, 2010
1 smartcard
11. Applications on Linux
In this section there will be applications that uses smart cards for some reason on Linux environment. If you are a developer of a software and your development environment is Linux please let me know. I will add you in the list.
11.1. scas
SCAS is a simple program that checks the code inside the card with the code inside the computer. As an example of showing a way of authentication with memory cards scas is very good.
11.2. smartcard
smartcard is a general smart card utility in Linux which uses CT-API. With smartcard utility you can read/write data from/into smart cards. As long as your reader can be accessed via CT-API, smartcard can be used to control the reader. Currently smartcard could only be used with memory cards using I2C or 3W protocols. There is also a GTK+/Gnome graphical front end which support all functions of smartcard utility.
11.3. ssh-smart
ssh-smart is a basic proof-of-concept of ssh identity on smart card, as the author says. ssh-smart uses smartcard utility to communicate with the smart card. Basically, ssh-smart-add tool (perl script) call ssh-keygen to generate RSA public and private keys. Than puts the private key on the memory card. Later the ssh-smart-addagent tool can be used to extract the private key from the card to use with ssh-agent.
11.4. smarttools-rsa
This is another PAM Module for Unix systems but supports RSA authentication through your private key on the smart card. You must have a Schlumberger Cyberflex Access card or Schlumberger Cryptoflex for Windows Card and a working reader to use this tool.
11.5. smartsign
This utility is some-complete PKI integration with the smart cards. To use you must establish a working OpenCA and have Schlumberger's "Cyberflex Access 16K" smart cards. During the certification process of OpenCA, private key and public certificate can be stored on the smart card and private key, later, could be used with Netscape to sign outgoing mails and news. Also smartsign supports authentication of local users via a PAM Module through a public key authentication. Smartsign comes with gpkcs11, a PKCS#11 implementation, smastsh, a command line shell that allows browsing smart card contents, sign_sc/verify_sc to sign and verify any file with smart card.
11.6. CITI Projects
At CITI, Center for Information Technology Integration of Michigan University, there are some new projects. For example, Webcard is a web server running on a Schlumberger Cyberflex Access Java Card. Features a stripped TCP/IP stack that supports HTTP only. The system is designed to have a router which frames IP packets in ISO7816 and a Java Virtual Machine in the card. Detailed technical report can be found at
In this section there will be applications that uses smart cards for some reason on Linux environment. If you are a developer of a software and your development environment is Linux please let me know. I will add you in the list.
11.1. scas
SCAS is a simple program that checks the code inside the card with the code inside the computer. As an example of showing a way of authentication with memory cards scas is very good.
11.2. smartcard
smartcard is a general smart card utility in Linux which uses CT-API. With smartcard utility you can read/write data from/into smart cards. As long as your reader can be accessed via CT-API, smartcard can be used to control the reader. Currently smartcard could only be used with memory cards using I2C or 3W protocols. There is also a GTK+/Gnome graphical front end which support all functions of smartcard utility.
11.3. ssh-smart
ssh-smart is a basic proof-of-concept of ssh identity on smart card, as the author says. ssh-smart uses smartcard utility to communicate with the smart card. Basically, ssh-smart-add tool (perl script) call ssh-keygen to generate RSA public and private keys. Than puts the private key on the memory card. Later the ssh-smart-addagent tool can be used to extract the private key from the card to use with ssh-agent.
11.4. smarttools-rsa
This is another PAM Module for Unix systems but supports RSA authentication through your private key on the smart card. You must have a Schlumberger Cyberflex Access card or Schlumberger Cryptoflex for Windows Card and a working reader to use this tool.
11.5. smartsign
This utility is some-complete PKI integration with the smart cards. To use you must establish a working OpenCA and have Schlumberger's "Cyberflex Access 16K" smart cards. During the certification process of OpenCA, private key and public certificate can be stored on the smart card and private key, later, could be used with Netscape to sign outgoing mails and news. Also smartsign supports authentication of local users via a PAM Module through a public key authentication. Smartsign comes with gpkcs11, a PKCS#11 implementation, smastsh, a command line shell that allows browsing smart card contents, sign_sc/verify_sc to sign and verify any file with smart card.
11.6. CITI Projects
At CITI, Center for Information Technology Integration of Michigan University, there are some new projects. For example, Webcard is a web server running on a Schlumberger Cyberflex Access Java Card. Features a stripped TCP/IP stack that supports HTTP only. The system is designed to have a router which frames IP packets in ISO7816 and a Java Virtual Machine in the card. Detailed technical report can be found at
2 smartcard
12. Smart Card Uses
Literally, billions of smart cards are already in use. Worldwide smart card sales could reach 1.6 billion units in 1998, up 23% from 1.3 billion units in 1997. Western Europe accounts for about 70% of the current smart card uses, followed by South America and Asia with about 10% each, while North America languishes at less than 5%. However, most smart cards issued today are memory cards (see Table) with limited processing capabilities. Still, hundreds of millions of processor cards are already in use today.
Smart Cards Issued in 1996 (in million units)
____________________________________
Phone cards 605
Health cards 70
Banking 40
ID/access cards 20
Pay TV cards 20
GSM cards (mobile phone) 20
Transportation 15
Metering/vending 10
Others 10
------------------------------------
Total 810
____________________________________
Source: Smart Card Industry Association
Phone cards have become ubiquitous in Western Europe and Asia where coin-operated public phones are becoming nearly obsolete. These pre-paid cards increase payphone operator revenues, allow more sophisticated transactions via public phones, and have become advertising devices as well as collector's items. Although the popularity of phone cards contributed to a widening acceptance of smart cards by consumers, however, processor cards are projected to be the fastest growing smart card uses by the year 2000.
Literally, billions of smart cards are already in use. Worldwide smart card sales could reach 1.6 billion units in 1998, up 23% from 1.3 billion units in 1997. Western Europe accounts for about 70% of the current smart card uses, followed by South America and Asia with about 10% each, while North America languishes at less than 5%. However, most smart cards issued today are memory cards (see Table) with limited processing capabilities. Still, hundreds of millions of processor cards are already in use today.
Smart Cards Issued in 1996 (in million units)
____________________________________
Phone cards 605
Health cards 70
Banking 40
ID/access cards 20
Pay TV cards 20
GSM cards (mobile phone) 20
Transportation 15
Metering/vending 10
Others 10
------------------------------------
Total 810
____________________________________
Source: Smart Card Industry Association
Phone cards have become ubiquitous in Western Europe and Asia where coin-operated public phones are becoming nearly obsolete. These pre-paid cards increase payphone operator revenues, allow more sophisticated transactions via public phones, and have become advertising devices as well as collector's items. Although the popularity of phone cards contributed to a widening acceptance of smart cards by consumers, however, processor cards are projected to be the fastest growing smart card uses by the year 2000.
3 smartcard
13. Technology and Players
For smart cards to carry out applications, several components must come together. The technology of smart cards include four critical segments.
13.1. Card Manufacturers
A smart card begins with a micro-controller produced by semiconductor manufacturers such as Siemens, Motorola and Thomson. This integrated circuit chip is attached to an electronic module by inserting into a cavity on the module. Then, terminals between the chip and the electronic module are interconnected. Finally, the chip-embedded electronic module is glued to a plastic card. The global leader in card manufacturing is Schlumberger who sold about half of all smart cards in use in 1997. A close second is Gemplus followed by Bull and De La Rue of France.
13.2. Card Terminals and Readesr
Smart cards may be read by conventional card reader or by wireless terminals. New devices similar to a floppy disk allow smart cards to be read by PC disk drive. Suppliers of POS and ATM card readers have expanded into smart card readers for their product lines, where some worldwide consolidation is occurring. For example, a market leader Grupe Ingenico is buying another player De La Rue of France.
13.3. Interface between Card and Terminal (API)
Electronic modules embedded in smart cards have contacts by which messages are exchanged between the card's IC chip and the card reader. International standards such as ISO 7816 have specified which contact handles what type of data but applications must be programmed to manage message exchanges that can be used by networked processors. An interoperable and multi-platform application programming interface (API) is critical for smart cards to carry out diverse functions. Open standards such as Java smart card API provides one of several proposed interfaces. Java Card API in particular offers a development tool for flexible, multi-platform applications–"Write Once, Run Anywhere"–for devices ranging from Network Computers, Web TV, smart phones and other consumer appliances. The industry leader Schlumberger, for example, has introduced EasyFlex and FastOS based on Java API.
13.4. Applications
The ultimate utility of smart cards is in the functions they carry out–for example, payment process, identification, network computing, health care management, benefits distribution and so on. Application programs handle data read by smart card readers and forward them to central computers located at the other end of the smart card infrastructure such as payment servers in banks, traffic control centers or mobile phone centers, credit card companies, transit authorities, governments, Microsoft and other service providers. Market players and stake holders in this end game for smart cards include a wide variety of firms and institutions including card issuers, content providers, Visa and MasterCard, banks, government agencies, security implementers such as Lucent Technologies, electronics manufacturers such as NEC, and service providers who want to exploit advantages of smart card technologies.
For smart cards to carry out applications, several components must come together. The technology of smart cards include four critical segments.
13.1. Card Manufacturers
A smart card begins with a micro-controller produced by semiconductor manufacturers such as Siemens, Motorola and Thomson. This integrated circuit chip is attached to an electronic module by inserting into a cavity on the module. Then, terminals between the chip and the electronic module are interconnected. Finally, the chip-embedded electronic module is glued to a plastic card. The global leader in card manufacturing is Schlumberger who sold about half of all smart cards in use in 1997. A close second is Gemplus followed by Bull and De La Rue of France.
13.2. Card Terminals and Readesr
Smart cards may be read by conventional card reader or by wireless terminals. New devices similar to a floppy disk allow smart cards to be read by PC disk drive. Suppliers of POS and ATM card readers have expanded into smart card readers for their product lines, where some worldwide consolidation is occurring. For example, a market leader Grupe Ingenico is buying another player De La Rue of France.
13.3. Interface between Card and Terminal (API)
Electronic modules embedded in smart cards have contacts by which messages are exchanged between the card's IC chip and the card reader. International standards such as ISO 7816 have specified which contact handles what type of data but applications must be programmed to manage message exchanges that can be used by networked processors. An interoperable and multi-platform application programming interface (API) is critical for smart cards to carry out diverse functions. Open standards such as Java smart card API provides one of several proposed interfaces. Java Card API in particular offers a development tool for flexible, multi-platform applications–"Write Once, Run Anywhere"–for devices ranging from Network Computers, Web TV, smart phones and other consumer appliances. The industry leader Schlumberger, for example, has introduced EasyFlex and FastOS based on Java API.
13.4. Applications
The ultimate utility of smart cards is in the functions they carry out–for example, payment process, identification, network computing, health care management, benefits distribution and so on. Application programs handle data read by smart card readers and forward them to central computers located at the other end of the smart card infrastructure such as payment servers in banks, traffic control centers or mobile phone centers, credit card companies, transit authorities, governments, Microsoft and other service providers. Market players and stake holders in this end game for smart cards include a wide variety of firms and institutions including card issuers, content providers, Visa and MasterCard, banks, government agencies, security implementers such as Lucent Technologies, electronics manufacturers such as NEC, and service providers who want to exploit advantages of smart card technologies.
4 smartcard
14. Smart Card Advantages
Compared to conventional data transmission devices such as magnetic-stripe cards, smart cards offer enhanced security, convenience and economic benefits. In addition, smart card-based systems are highly configurable to suit individual needs. Finally, the multifunctionality as payment, application and networking devices renders a smart card as a perfect user interface in a mobile, networked economy.
14.1. Customer Benefits
14.1.1 Full Portability of Services
The smart card effectively breaks the link between the subscriber and the terminal, allowing the use of any properly equipped terminal and helping to realize the wireless promise of any-time, anywhere communications. In fact, subscribers need not be constrained to using voice terminals only. A variety of other mobile communications devices such as personal digital assistants (PDAs) and personal intelligent communicators (PICs) are available that may have voice communications added as an integral part of their capabilities. If these other devices are equipped for smart cards, the potential for communications is increased. Similarly, data communications applications could benefit from the security features inherent in smart cards.
14.1.2 International Roaming
Wireless customers often require the ability to place and receive calls when traveling abroad. For these customers, international roaming enabled by smart cards is quite valuable. For example, Ameritech, AT&T, and GTE have all instituted international roaming programs using GSM phones and smart cards. The program uses co-branded smart cards, which corporate customers bring with them when they travel abroad. Customers are given a telephone number from a GSM carrier, which allows them to be contacted in any of the countries that have international roaming agreements.
14.1.3 Intersystem Roaming
The incompatibility of different communications radio interfaces and authentication protocols (time division multiple access [TDMA], code division multiple access [CDMA], GSM, personal digital cellular [PDC], mobile satellite systems, etc.) requires subscribers to make choices that constrain them to use only one particular type of handset that works with only one radio interface. With a smart card, it becomes possible for subscribers to use one handset for different interfaces and protocols. This feature is already implemented among the three frequencies used by the GSM platform (900, 1800, and 1900 MHz). American National Standards Institute (ANSI) telephone industry price index (T1P1).3 has recommended standards for a user identity module, a smart card that can be used with the major radio access methods. Thus, it becomes conceivable to have current GSM smart cards modified so that they can work with a CDMA handset. For example, North American GSM operators have designed a process to which the SIM holds both the GSM and advanced mobile phone service (AMPS) authentication algorithm and data to provide authentication on both networks in interroaming situations.
14.1.4 Multiple Services on a Single Card
As mentioned earlier, maximum value is realized by the subscriber when multiple applications are stored on a single card (see Figure). A multiapplication smart card could provide access to airline reservation and ticketing systems and information networks, as well as a mobile telephone service. Considering the many cards that the average person carries these days (i.e., numerous credit cards, debit cards, employee ID cards), integrating more applications into a single card (or at least fewer cards) has obvious appeal and benefits. It is important to note that there is clear interest on the part other industries to package their services with mobile telephony. For example, research by Citibank indicates clearly that a substantial percentage of the company's customers would like to be able to conduct its banking on a variety of platforms, including wireless. Such services are already available using a standardized toolbox for smart-card application creation.
14.1.5 Separation of Business and Personal Calls
The smart card allows customers to be billed separately for personal and business calls made on a single phone. For example, Airtel, a Spanish GSM operator, uses a SIM card with two sets of subscription information—one for corporate and the other for personal use. Airtel’s dual SIM cards have been well received in the corporate market.
14.2 Enhanced Security Benefits
SIM cards have several features that enhance security for wireless communications networks. Smart-card supporters point to the potential of limiting or eliminating fraud as one of their strongest selling points.
SIM cards provide a secure authentication key transport container from the carrier’s authentication center to the end-user’s terminal. Their superior fraud protection is enabled by hosting the cryptographic authentication algorithm and data on the card’s microprocessor chip. SIM cards can be personal identification number (PIN) protected and include additional protection against logical attacks. With added PIN code security, SIM cards offer the same level of security used by banks for securing off-line payments.
Because the home network–authentication algorithm also resides in the card, SIM cards make secure roaming possible. They can also include various authentication mechanisms for internetwork roaming of different types.
Complete fraud protection (with the exclusion of subscription fraud) can only be provided in the context of a complete security framework that includes terminal authentication, an authentication center, and authentication key management. Smart cards are an essential piece of this environment, but only the complete architecture can allow fraud reduction and secure roaming.
Finally, it should be noted that biometric smart-card applications such as voice or fingerprint recognition could be added to provide maximum fraud prevention. Smart cards could then combine the three basic security blocks of possession, knowledge, and characteristics (see Figure ).
14.3 Convenience
One use of the old fashioned memory cards is to replace various identification cards. Smart cards will combine paper, plastic and magnetic cards used for identification, automatic teller machines, copiers, toll collection, pay phones, health care and welfare administration. Universities, firms and governments rely on smart identification cards since they can contain more detailed data and enable many services to be integrated. Health care cards, for example, reduce document processing costs by allowing immediate access to personalized patient information stored in smart cards. Most other smart card uses combine identification function with specialized purposes as in military PX cards, government's Electronic Benefit Transfer cards, and university ID cards that are also used to pay for food and photocopies.
14.4 Economic Benefits
Smart cards reduce transaction costs by eliminating paper and paper handling costs in hospitals and government benefit payment programs. Contact and contactless toll payment cards streamline toll collection procedures, reducing labor costs as well as delays caused by manual systems. Maintenance costs for vending machines, petroleum dispensers, parking meters and public phones are lowered while revenues could increase, about 30% in some estimates, due to the convenience of the smart card payment systems in these machines.
14.5 Customization
A smart card contains all the data needed to personalize networking, Web connection, payments and other applications. Using a smart card, one can establish a personalized network connection anywhere in the world using a phone center or an information kiosk. Web servers will verify the user's identity and present a customized Web page, an e-mail connection and other authorized services based on the data read from a smart card. Personal settings for electronic appliances, including computers, will be stored in smart cards rather than in the appliances themselves. Phone numbers are stored in smart cards instead of phones. While appliances become generic tools, users only carry a smart card as the ultimate networking and personal computing device.
14.6 Multifunctionality
The processing power of a smart card makes it ideal to mix multiple functions. For example, government benefit cards will also allow users access to other benefit programs such as health care clinics and job training programs. A college identification card can be used to pay for food, phone calls and photocopies, to access campus networks and to register classes. By integrating many functions, governments and colleges can manage and improve their operations at lower costs and offer innovative services.
Compared to conventional data transmission devices such as magnetic-stripe cards, smart cards offer enhanced security, convenience and economic benefits. In addition, smart card-based systems are highly configurable to suit individual needs. Finally, the multifunctionality as payment, application and networking devices renders a smart card as a perfect user interface in a mobile, networked economy.
14.1. Customer Benefits
14.1.1 Full Portability of Services
The smart card effectively breaks the link between the subscriber and the terminal, allowing the use of any properly equipped terminal and helping to realize the wireless promise of any-time, anywhere communications. In fact, subscribers need not be constrained to using voice terminals only. A variety of other mobile communications devices such as personal digital assistants (PDAs) and personal intelligent communicators (PICs) are available that may have voice communications added as an integral part of their capabilities. If these other devices are equipped for smart cards, the potential for communications is increased. Similarly, data communications applications could benefit from the security features inherent in smart cards.
14.1.2 International Roaming
Wireless customers often require the ability to place and receive calls when traveling abroad. For these customers, international roaming enabled by smart cards is quite valuable. For example, Ameritech, AT&T, and GTE have all instituted international roaming programs using GSM phones and smart cards. The program uses co-branded smart cards, which corporate customers bring with them when they travel abroad. Customers are given a telephone number from a GSM carrier, which allows them to be contacted in any of the countries that have international roaming agreements.
14.1.3 Intersystem Roaming
The incompatibility of different communications radio interfaces and authentication protocols (time division multiple access [TDMA], code division multiple access [CDMA], GSM, personal digital cellular [PDC], mobile satellite systems, etc.) requires subscribers to make choices that constrain them to use only one particular type of handset that works with only one radio interface. With a smart card, it becomes possible for subscribers to use one handset for different interfaces and protocols. This feature is already implemented among the three frequencies used by the GSM platform (900, 1800, and 1900 MHz). American National Standards Institute (ANSI) telephone industry price index (T1P1).3 has recommended standards for a user identity module, a smart card that can be used with the major radio access methods. Thus, it becomes conceivable to have current GSM smart cards modified so that they can work with a CDMA handset. For example, North American GSM operators have designed a process to which the SIM holds both the GSM and advanced mobile phone service (AMPS) authentication algorithm and data to provide authentication on both networks in interroaming situations.
14.1.4 Multiple Services on a Single Card
As mentioned earlier, maximum value is realized by the subscriber when multiple applications are stored on a single card (see Figure). A multiapplication smart card could provide access to airline reservation and ticketing systems and information networks, as well as a mobile telephone service. Considering the many cards that the average person carries these days (i.e., numerous credit cards, debit cards, employee ID cards), integrating more applications into a single card (or at least fewer cards) has obvious appeal and benefits. It is important to note that there is clear interest on the part other industries to package their services with mobile telephony. For example, research by Citibank indicates clearly that a substantial percentage of the company's customers would like to be able to conduct its banking on a variety of platforms, including wireless. Such services are already available using a standardized toolbox for smart-card application creation.
14.1.5 Separation of Business and Personal Calls
The smart card allows customers to be billed separately for personal and business calls made on a single phone. For example, Airtel, a Spanish GSM operator, uses a SIM card with two sets of subscription information—one for corporate and the other for personal use. Airtel’s dual SIM cards have been well received in the corporate market.
14.2 Enhanced Security Benefits
SIM cards have several features that enhance security for wireless communications networks. Smart-card supporters point to the potential of limiting or eliminating fraud as one of their strongest selling points.
SIM cards provide a secure authentication key transport container from the carrier’s authentication center to the end-user’s terminal. Their superior fraud protection is enabled by hosting the cryptographic authentication algorithm and data on the card’s microprocessor chip. SIM cards can be personal identification number (PIN) protected and include additional protection against logical attacks. With added PIN code security, SIM cards offer the same level of security used by banks for securing off-line payments.
Because the home network–authentication algorithm also resides in the card, SIM cards make secure roaming possible. They can also include various authentication mechanisms for internetwork roaming of different types.
Complete fraud protection (with the exclusion of subscription fraud) can only be provided in the context of a complete security framework that includes terminal authentication, an authentication center, and authentication key management. Smart cards are an essential piece of this environment, but only the complete architecture can allow fraud reduction and secure roaming.
Finally, it should be noted that biometric smart-card applications such as voice or fingerprint recognition could be added to provide maximum fraud prevention. Smart cards could then combine the three basic security blocks of possession, knowledge, and characteristics (see Figure ).
14.3 Convenience
One use of the old fashioned memory cards is to replace various identification cards. Smart cards will combine paper, plastic and magnetic cards used for identification, automatic teller machines, copiers, toll collection, pay phones, health care and welfare administration. Universities, firms and governments rely on smart identification cards since they can contain more detailed data and enable many services to be integrated. Health care cards, for example, reduce document processing costs by allowing immediate access to personalized patient information stored in smart cards. Most other smart card uses combine identification function with specialized purposes as in military PX cards, government's Electronic Benefit Transfer cards, and university ID cards that are also used to pay for food and photocopies.
14.4 Economic Benefits
Smart cards reduce transaction costs by eliminating paper and paper handling costs in hospitals and government benefit payment programs. Contact and contactless toll payment cards streamline toll collection procedures, reducing labor costs as well as delays caused by manual systems. Maintenance costs for vending machines, petroleum dispensers, parking meters and public phones are lowered while revenues could increase, about 30% in some estimates, due to the convenience of the smart card payment systems in these machines.
14.5 Customization
A smart card contains all the data needed to personalize networking, Web connection, payments and other applications. Using a smart card, one can establish a personalized network connection anywhere in the world using a phone center or an information kiosk. Web servers will verify the user's identity and present a customized Web page, an e-mail connection and other authorized services based on the data read from a smart card. Personal settings for electronic appliances, including computers, will be stored in smart cards rather than in the appliances themselves. Phone numbers are stored in smart cards instead of phones. While appliances become generic tools, users only carry a smart card as the ultimate networking and personal computing device.
14.6 Multifunctionality
The processing power of a smart card makes it ideal to mix multiple functions. For example, government benefit cards will also allow users access to other benefit programs such as health care clinics and job training programs. A college identification card can be used to pay for food, phone calls and photocopies, to access campus networks and to register classes. By integrating many functions, governments and colleges can manage and improve their operations at lower costs and offer innovative services.
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